{"id":467731,"date":"2022-10-31T09:08:22","date_gmt":"2022-10-31T09:08:22","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/?post_type=publication&#038;p=467731"},"modified":"2024-02-10T10:56:31","modified_gmt":"2024-02-10T10:56:31","slug":"%d8%a5%d8%b5%d9%84%d8%a7%d8%ad-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%82%d8%b7%d8%a7%d8%b9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%85%d9%86%d9%8a-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a8%d9%8a%d8%a6%d8%a7%d8%aa-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b5%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%b9-%d8%a7%d9%84","status":"publish","type":"publication","link":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/publication\/%d8%a5%d8%b5%d9%84%d8%a7%d8%ad-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%82%d8%b7%d8%a7%d8%b9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%85%d9%86%d9%8a-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a8%d9%8a%d8%a6%d8%a7%d8%aa-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b5%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%b9-%d8%a7%d9%84\/","title":{"rendered":"\u0625\u0635\u0644\u0627\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0646\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0628\u064a\u0626\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0631\u0627\u0639 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\u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0634\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0627\u0642- \u0642\u062f \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0639\u062c\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0637\u0631\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0648\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0627 \u0623\u0648 \u062a\u0631\u0643\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0625\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0646\u060c \u0628\u064a\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0651\u0647\u0627 \u0633\u0628\u0642 \u0623\u0646 \u0641\u0631\u0636\u062a \u0646\u0641\u0648\u0630\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u062d\u0644\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a \u0648\u062d\u0638\u064a\u062a \u0628\u0627\u0639\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064d \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0644\u064a\u0633\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u0627\u0648\u0641 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062d\u0644\u0651\u0647\u0627.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u0644\u0642\u062f \u062a\u0645\u0651\u062a \u0645\u0639\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0629 \u0647\u0634\u0627\u0634\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644\u064d \u0639\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0639\u0628\u0631 \u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629. \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u060c \u0645\u0646 \u0634\u0623\u0646 \u0648\u0636\u0639 \u0625\u0633\u062a\u0631\u0627\u062a\u064a\u062c\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0645\u062d\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u0651\u062f \u0641\u0631\u0635\u0627\u064b \u0645\u062d\u062a\u0645\u0644\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u062e\u0641\u064a\u0641 \u0645\u0646 \u062d\u062f\u0651\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0631\u0627\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0638\u0644 \u0636\u0639\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0641\u064e\u0642\u064e\u062f\u064e\u062a \u0634\u0631\u0639\u064a\u062a\u064e\u0647\u0627. \u0648\u064a\u0646\u0628\u063a\u064a \u062a\u0635\u0648\u0651\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646\u0651\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u062c\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0627\u064a\u0634 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0628\u0627\u062f\u0644 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0647\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0651\u062d\u0629 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062c\u0630\u0651\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0633\u0639\u060c \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c \u0625\u0637\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0648\u062f\u0627\u062e\u0644\u0647. \u0633\u064a\u0633\u0627\u0639\u062f \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0642\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0637\u0648\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0633\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0622\u0644\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0627\u0637\u064a \u0628\u0635\u0648\u0631\u0629\u064d \u0641\u0631\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0634\u0639\u0651\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0636\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u062c\u064a\u0646\u0629. \u0648\u0645\u0646 \u0634\u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0633\u0627\u0647\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0623\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0627\u0642\u0639 \u062d\u064a\u062b \u062a\u0642\u0648\u0645 \u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0637\u0631\u0627\u0641 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641\u0629 \u0628\u0647\u064a\u0643\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0648\u0643\u0645\u0629 \u0648\u0642\u064a\u0627\u062f\u062a\u0647\u0645\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0637\u0631\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0645\u0631 \u0628\u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0631\u0627\u0639.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><a href=\"#_ednref1\" name=\"_edn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h5><\/h5>\n<h4><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0647\u0648\u0627\u0645\u0634<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote1\">1<\/sup> Jos\u00e9 Ciro Mart\u00ednez and Brent Eng, \u201cStifling Stateness: The Assad Regime&#8217;s Campaign Against Rebel Governance,\u201d <em>Security Dialogue<\/em> 49, No. 4 (August 2018); \u201cSecurity Sector Reform (SSR),\u201d United Nations, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/access-to-justice-and-rule-of-law-institutions\/ssr\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/access-to-justice-and-rule-of-law-institutions\/ssr\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote2\">2<\/sup>\u00a0 Becca Wasser, Stacie L. Pettyjohn, Jeffrey Martini et al, <em>The Air War Against the Islamic State<\/em>, Research Report, (California: Rand Corporation, 2021), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rand.org\/pubs\/research_reports\/RRA388-1.html\">https:\/\/www.rand.org\/pubs\/research_reports\/RRA388-1.html<\/a>; Aaron Stein, <em>Partner Operations in Syria Lessons Learned and the Way Forward<\/em>, Report, (Washington D.C.: Atlantic Council, \u00a02017), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.atlanticcouncil.org\/in-depth-research-reports\/report\/partner-operations-in-syria\/\">https:\/\/www.atlanticcouncil.org\/in-depth-research-reports\/report\/partner-operations-in-syria\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote3\">3<\/sup>\u00a0 Ibid.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote4\">4<\/sup> \u00a0Ibid.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote5\">5<\/sup> Ahmad Majidyar, \u201cIranian-Backed PMF Leaders Gearing up for Elections while Keeping Military Roles,\u201d Middle East Institute, April 6, 2018, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mei.edu\/publications\/iranian-backed-pmf-leaders-gearing-elections-while-keeping-military-roles\">https:\/\/www.mei.edu\/publications\/iranian-backed-pmf-leaders-gearing-elections-while-keeping-military-roles<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote6\">6<\/sup> Ibrahim Al-Marashi, \u201cThe Contest Between Two Quasi-States: ISIL and Rojava,\u201d AlJazeera English, July 1, 2015, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/opinions\/2015\/7\/1\/the-contest-between-two-quasi-states-isil-and-rojava\">https:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/opinions\/2015\/7\/1\/the-contest-between-two-quasi-states-isil-and-rojava<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote7\">7<\/sup> Ranj Alaaldin, Jason Fritz, Steven Heydemann, Bruce Jones, and Michael E. O\u2019Hanlon, <em>A 10-degree Shift in Syria Strategy<\/em>, Policy Brief, (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, Brookings Institution, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/research\/a-10-degree-shift-in-syria-strategy\/\">https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/research\/a-10-degree-shift-in-syria-strategy\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote8\">8<\/sup> Jesse I. Kornbluth, \u201cMilitias in the Middle East and North Africa: \u201cIt\u2019s the Governance, Stupid!,\u201d\u201d<em>Order From Chaos <\/em>(blog), July 3, 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/blog\/order-from-chaos\/2019\/07\/03\/militias-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa-its-the-governance-stupid\/\">https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/blog\/order-from-chaos\/2019\/07\/03\/militias-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa-its-the-governance-stupid\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote9\">9<\/sup> Ranj Alaaldin, <em>Containing Shiite Militias: The Battle for Stability in Iraq<\/em>, Report, \u00a0(Doha, Qatar: Brookings Doha Center, 2017), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/research\/containing-shiite-militias-the-battle-for-stability-in-iraq\/\">https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/research\/containing-shiite-militias-the-battle-for-stability-in-iraq\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote10\">10<\/sup>\u00a0 Wasser, Pettyjohn, Martini et al., <em>Air War Against the Islamic State<\/em>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote11\">11<\/sup> Ibid.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote12\">12<\/sup> Guma El- Gamaty, \u201cItaly and France are Playing a Dangerous Game in Libya,\u201d Al Jazeera, August 21, 2017, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/opinions\/2017\/8\/21\/italy-and-france-are-playing-a-dangerous-game-in-libya\">https:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/opinions\/2017\/8\/21\/italy-and-france-are-playing-a-dangerous-game-in-libya<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote13\">13<\/sup> Francesco Siccardi, <em>How Syria Changed Turkey\u2019s Foreign Policy<\/em>, Working Paper, (Brussels: Carnegie Europe, 2021), <a href=\"https:\/\/carnegieeurope.eu\/2021\/09\/14\/how-syria-changed-turkey-s-foreign-policy-pub-85301\">https:\/\/carnegieeurope.eu\/2021\/09\/14\/how-syria-changed-turkey-s-foreign-policy-pub-85301<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote14\">14<\/sup> \u201cCountry Brief: World Vision- Syria,\u201d ReliefWeb, accessed October 27, 2022, <a href=\"https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/syrian-arab-republic\/country-brief-world-vision-syria#:~:text=The%20war%20has%20left%206.5,further%20vulnerabilities%20and%20food%20insecurity\">https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/syrian-arab-republic\/country-brief-world-vision-syria#:~:text=The%20war%20has%20left%206.5,further%20vulnerabilities%20and%20food%20insecurity<\/a>; Emma Farge,\u201cWar has Killed 1.5% of Syria&#8217;s Population: UN Estimate,\u201d Reuters, June 28, 2022, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/world\/middle-east\/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28\/#:~:text=GENEVA%2C%20June%2028%20(Reuters),was%20the%20highest%20estimate%20yet\">https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/world\/middle-east\/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28\/#:~:text=GENEVA%2C%20June%2028%20(Reuters),was%20the%20highest%20estimate%20yet<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote15\">15<\/sup> Ranj Alaaldin, \u201cCOVID-19 will Prolong Conflict in the Middle East,\u201d <em>Order From Chaos <\/em>(blog), April 24, 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/blog\/order-from-chaos\/2020\/04\/24\/covid-19-will-prolong-conflict-in-the-middle-east\/\">https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/blog\/order-from-chaos\/2020\/04\/24\/covid-19-will-prolong-conflict-in-the-middle-east\/<\/a>; \u201cA Record Number of People will Need Help Worldwide during 2020: \u201cUN Humanitarian Overview,\u201d United Nations, 4 December, 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/news.un.org\/en\/story\/2019\/12\/1052731\">https:\/\/news.un.org\/en\/story\/2019\/12\/1052731<\/a>; see also Ranj Alaaldin, \u201cSecuring Humanitarian Assistance in the Middle East is More Urgent than Ever,\u201d Brookings Doha Center, August 11, 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/opinions\/securing-humanitarian-assistance-in-the-middle-east-is-more-urgent-than-ever\/\">https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/opinions\/securing-humanitarian-assistance-in-the-middle-east-is-more-urgent-than-ever\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote16\">16<\/sup> \u201cCoronavirus Pandemic Threatens to Plunge Millions in Arab Region into Poverty and Food,\u201d United Nations, April 1, 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/news.un.org\/en\/story\/2020\/04\/1060822\">https:\/\/news.un.org\/en\/story\/2020\/04\/1060822<\/a>; see also Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO), UCDP\/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset v.4-2014a, 1946\u20132013, <a href=\"https:\/\/ucdp.uu.se\/downloads\/\">https:\/\/ucdp.uu.se\/downloads\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote17\">17<\/sup> Alexandre Marc, \u201cConflict and Violence in the 21<sup>st<\/sup> Century: Current Trends as Observed in Empirical Research and Statistics,\u201d World Bank Group, October 1, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/pga\/70\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/10\/2016\/01\/Conflict-and-violence-in-the-21st-century-Current-trends-as-observed-in-empirical-research-and-statistics-Mr.-Alexandre-Marc-Chief-Specialist-Fragility-Conflict-and-Violence-World-Bank-Group.pdf\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/pga\/70\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/10\/2016\/01\/Conflict-and-violence-in-the-21st-century-Current-trends-as-observed-in-empirical-research-and-statistics-Mr.-Alexandre-Marc-Chief-Specialist-Fragility-Conflict-and-Violence-World-Bank-Group.pdf<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote18\">18<\/sup> Rana Khalaf, <em>Governing Rojava: Layers of Legitimacy in Syria<\/em>, Research Paper, Chatham House, (London: Chatham House, 2016), \u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.chathamhouse.org\/2016\/12\/governing-rojava-layers-legitimacy-syria\">https:\/\/www.chathamhouse.org\/2016\/12\/governing-rojava-layers-legitimacy-syria<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote19\">19<\/sup> Ranj Alaaldin, <em>Containing Shiite militias. <\/em><\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote20\">20<\/sup> Ibid.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote21\">21<\/sup> Ranj Alaaldin, \u201cWhat\u2019s Next for Turkey, the US, and the YPG After the Afrin Operation?,\u201d <em>Order From Chaos <\/em>(blog), January 26, 2018, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/blog\/order-from-chaos\/2018\/01\/26\/whats-next-for-turkey-the-us-and-the-ypg-after-the-afrin-operation\/\">https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/blog\/order-from-chaos\/2018\/01\/26\/whats-next-for-turkey-the-us-and-the-ypg-after-the-afrin-operation\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote22\">22<\/sup> Andrea Cellino and Eleonora Ardemagni, eds., <em>Institutionalised Insecurity: Exploring the Mena Region\u2019s Governance Crises,<\/em> Report, (Geneva: Geneva Centre for Security Sector Reform (DCAF) and the Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI), 2021), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.dcaf.ch\/institutionalised-insecurity-exploring-mena-regions-governance-crises\">https:\/\/www.dcaf.ch\/institutionalised-insecurity-exploring-mena-regions-governance-crises<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote23\">23<\/sup> Jos\u00e9 Ciro Mart\u00ednez and Brent Eng, \u201cStifling Stateness: The Assad Regime&#8217;s Campaign Against Rebel Governance,\u201d <em>Security Dialogue<\/em> 49, No. 4 (August 2018); \u201cSecurity Sector Reform (SSR),\u201d United Nations, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/access-to-justice-and-rule-of-law-institutions\/ssr\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/access-to-justice-and-rule-of-law-institutions\/ssr\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote24\">24<\/sup> Ibid.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote25\">25<\/sup> Rana Khalaf, <em>Governing Rojava. <\/em><\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote26\">26<\/sup> Jessica Watkins, \u201cIraq\u2019s Popular Mobilisation Forces and the COVID-19 Pandemic: A New Raison d\u2019\u00eatre<em>?\u201d London School of Economics <\/em>(blog), April 29, 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.lse.ac.uk\/mec\/2020\/04\/29\/iraqs-popular-mobilisation-forces-and-the-covid-19-pandemic-a-new-raison-detre\/\">https:\/\/blogs.lse.ac.uk\/mec\/2020\/04\/29\/iraqs-popular-mobilisation-forces-and-the-covid-19-pandemic-a-new-raison-detre\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote27\">27<\/sup> Haley Bobseine, <em>Tribal Justice in a Fragile Iraq<\/em>, Report, (Washington D.C.: The Century Foundation, 2019), \u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/tcf.org\/content\/report\/tribal-justice-fragile-iraq\/?session=1\">https:\/\/tcf.org\/content\/report\/tribal-justice-fragile-iraq\/?session=1<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote28\">28<\/sup> Ranj Alaaldin, <em>The Origins and Ascendancy of Iraq\u2019s Shiite Militias<\/em>, (Washington D.C.: Hudson Institute, 2017), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.hudson.org\/research\/13993-the-origins-and-ascendancy-of-iraq-s-shiite-militias\">https:\/\/www.hudson.org\/research\/13993-the-origins-and-ascendancy-of-iraq-s-shiite-militias<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote29\">29<\/sup> Yaniv Voller, <em>Second-Generation Liberation Wars: Rethinking Colonialism in Iraqi Kurdistan and Southern<\/em> <em>Sudan<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022); Harriet Allsopp, <em>The Kurds of Syria: Political Parties and Identity in the Middle East<\/em> (London: I.B. Tauris, 2016).<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote30\">30<\/sup> Emadeddin Badi, <em>Exploring Armed Groups in Libya: Perspectives on Security Sector Reform in a Hybrid<\/em> <em>Environment<\/em>, Research Paper, (Geneva: DCAF, 2020), \u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.dcaf.ch\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/documents\/ExploringArmedGroupsinLibya.pdf\">https:\/\/www.dcaf.ch\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/documents\/ExploringArmedGroupsinLibya.pdf<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote31\">31<\/sup> Ranj Alaaldin, Federica Saini Fasanotti, Arturo Varvelli, Tarik M. Yousef, eds., <em>The Rise and the Future of Militias in the MENA Region<\/em>, Report, (Milan: ISPI and BDC, 2019), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ispionline.it\/en\/pubblicazione\/rise-and-future-militias-mena-region-24466\">https:\/\/www.ispionline.it\/en\/pubblicazione\/rise-and-future-militias-mena-region-24466<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote32\">32<\/sup> Sarah Dadouch, \u201cIran is Putting Down Roots in Eastern Syria, Outcompeting Assad\u2019s Regime in Signing up Fighters,\u201d Washington Post<em>,<\/em> January 28, 2022, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/2022\/01\/28\/iran-syria-militias-deir-al-zour\/\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/2022\/01\/28\/iran-syria-militias-deir-al-zour\/<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote33\">33<\/sup> Ibid.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote34\">34<\/sup> Ibid.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote35\">35<\/sup> Maggie Michael, Lori Hinnant, Renata Brito,\u201cMaking Misery Pay: Libya Militias Take EU Funds for Migrants,\u201d Associated Press, December 30, 2019,<a href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/united-nations-tripoli-ap-top-news-international-news-immigration-9d9e8d668ae4b73a336a636a86bdf27f\">https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/united-nations-tripoli-ap-top-news-international-news-immigration-9d9e8d668ae4b73a336a636a86bdf27f<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote36\">36<\/sup> \u00a0Ranj Alaaldin and Vanda Felbab-Brown, \u201cNew Vulnerabilities for Iraq\u2019s Resilient Popular Mobilization Forces Militias in the Middle East and North Africa,\u201d <em>Order From Chaos <\/em>(blog), February 3, 2022, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/blog\/order-from-chaos\/2022\/02\/03\/new-vulnerabilities-for-iraqs-resilient-popular-mobilization-forces\/\">https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/blog\/order-from-chaos\/2022\/02\/03\/new-vulnerabilities-for-iraqs-resilient-popular-mobilization-forces\/<\/a>; \u00a0John Davison, \u201cIran-Backed Groups Corner Iraq&#8217;s Postwar Scrap Metal Market,\u201d Reuters, February 13, 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-iraq-militias-exclusive-idINKCN1Q20R5\">https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-iraq-militias-exclusive-idINKCN1Q20R5<\/a>; \u201cMilitia smuggle 40,000 barrels of oil to Iran daily,\u201d Al Arabiya English, May 20, 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/english.alarabiya.net\/perspective\/features\/2016\/11\/18\/Militias-smuggle-40-000-barrels-of-oil-to-Iran-daily\">https:\/\/english.alarabiya.net\/perspective\/features\/2016\/11\/18\/Militias-smuggle-40-000-barrels-of-oil-to-Iran-daily<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote37\">37<\/sup> Salam Zidane, \u201cIraq Automates its Customs Service to Reduce Corruption at Border Crossings,\u201d Al Monitor<em>,<\/em> June 22, 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.al-monitor.com\/originals\/2021\/06\/iraq-automates-its-customs-service-reduce-corruption-border-crossings#ixzz7XcUWxmsu\">https:\/\/www.al-monitor.com\/originals\/2021\/06\/iraq-automates-its-customs-service-reduce-corruption-border-crossings#ixzz7XcUWxmsu<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote38\">38<\/sup> Ibid.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote39\">39<\/sup> Chris Stephen, \u201cLibya Splits into Disparate Militia Zones,\u201d the Guardian, June 10, 2012, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2012\/jun\/10\/libya-split-between-militias\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2012\/jun\/10\/libya-split-between-militias<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote40\">40<\/sup> Ranj Alaaldin, \u201cShia Ascendency in Iraq and the Sectarian Polarisation of the Middle East,\u201d in <em>The Legacy of Iraq: From the 2003 War to the &#8216;Islamic State,<\/em>&#8216; ed. Benjamin Isakhan (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 181-194.<\/h6>\n<h6><sup id=\"endnote41\">41<\/sup> Ibid.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0644\u0642\u062f \u062e\u0636\u0639 \u0633\u0643\u0651\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0639\u0635\u0641 \u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0631\u0627\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0633\u0637 \u0648\u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627 \u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u062d\u0648\u0651\u0644\u064d \u062c\u0630\u0631\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0647\u064a\u0643\u0644\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"featured_media":467589,"template":"","categories":[64],"institution":[],"geographic_area":[94,113],"programs":[],"publication_type":[90],"class_list":["post-467731","publication","type-publication","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-64","geographic_area-94","geographic_area-113","publication_type-90","entry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/publication\/467731","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/publication"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/publication"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/467589"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=467731"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=467731"},{"taxonomy":"institution","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/institution?post=467731"},{"taxonomy":"geographic_area","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/geographic_area?post=467731"},{"taxonomy":"programs","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/programs?post=467731"},{"taxonomy":"publication_type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mecouncil.org\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/publication_type?post=467731"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}